TEXT 1 — VENUS

The first maps of Venus were made using radar beams transmitted from Earth. Radar was the only way to map its surface, because the clouds on Venus are so thick that the surface cannot be seen through them. The results of these early attempts at mapping were relatively crude and difficult to interpret, although the regions known as Alpha and Beta Regions were discovered.

The first direct view of the surface came from probes, which were landed on Venus in 1975 by the spacecraft Venera 9 and 10, and showed a dry rock-strewn surface.

Maps of the surface improved dramatically in 1978, when the Pioneer-Venus 1 spacecraft went into orbit around Venus, equipped with a radar altimeter. It showed huge rolling plains stretching right around the planet, some lowland areas, and two highland regions called Ishtar and Aphrodite. The peaks of the highest mountains, Maxwell Montes, in the eastern part of Ishtar, were found to be 12,000 meters above the general surface level, so they are appreciably higher than the Himalayas. Aphrodite, which is larger than Ishtar, has a vast rift valley at its eastern end nearly 3,000 meters deep, 2,200 kilometers long, and 280 kilometers wide. Two shield volcanoes, broad volcanoes formed of successive outpourings of lava, which are much larger than any found on Earth, were also found isolated from the two upland areas. Six years later a great many impact craters and small volcanoes were found by Venera 15 and 16 orbiters.

Later yet, the Magellan spacecraft entered orbit around Venus in August 1990, and over the next two years completed a detailed radar mapping of the surface. It found that the surface is mostly volcanic, with large lava-flooded plains and thousands of volcanoes. There are also signs of tectonic activity, which has caused, for example, multiple faulting and deep fractures. There are a number of rift valleys, some of which have been partly flooded by molten lava, and a number of impact craters, the density of which has enabled the ages of various areas to be estimated. The absence of impact craters in an area suggests an age of no more than a few tens of millions of years.

The passage mainly discusses how ______.

TEXT 1 — VENUS

The first maps of Venus were made using radar beams transmitted from Earth. Radar was the only way to map its surface, because the clouds on Venus are so thick that the surface cannot be seen through them. The results of these early attempts at mapping were relatively crude and difficult to interpret, although the regions known as Alpha and Beta Regions were discovered.

The first direct view of the surface came from probes, which were landed on Venus in 1975 by the spacecraft Venera 9 and 10, and showed a dry rock-strewn surface.

Maps of the surface improved dramatically in 1978, when the Pioneer-Venus 1 spacecraft went into orbit around Venus, equipped with a radar altimeter. It showed huge rolling plains stretching right around the planet, some lowland areas, and two highland regions called Ishtar and Aphrodite. The peaks of the highest mountains, Maxwell Montes, in the eastern part of Ishtar, were found to be 12,000 meters above the general surface level, so they are appreciably higher than the Himalayas. Aphrodite, which is larger than Ishtar, has a vast rift valley at its eastern end nearly 3,000 meters deep, 2,200 kilometers long, and 280 kilometers wide. Two shield volcanoes, broad volcanoes formed of successive outpourings of lava, which are much larger than any found on Earth, were also found isolated from the two upland areas. Six years later a great many impact craters and small volcanoes were found by Venera 15 and 16 orbiters.

Later yet, the Magellan spacecraft entered orbit around Venus in August 1990, and over the next two years completed a detailed radar mapping of the surface. It found that the surface is mostly volcanic, with large lava-flooded plains and thousands of volcanoes. There are also signs of tectonic activity, which has caused, for example, multiple faulting and deep fractures. There are a number of rift valleys, some of which have been partly flooded by molten lava, and a number of impact craters, the density of which has enabled the ages of various areas to be estimated. The absence of impact craters in an area suggests an age of no more than a few tens of millions of years.

The passage mentions that radar beams were used to obtain the first maps of Venus because they ______.

TEXT 1 — VENUS

The first maps of Venus were made using radar beams transmitted from Earth. Radar was the only way to map its surface, because the clouds on Venus are so thick that the surface cannot be seen through them. The results of these early attempts at mapping were relatively crude and difficult to interpret, although the regions known as Alpha and Beta Regions were discovered.

The first direct view of the surface came from probes, which were landed on Venus in 1975 by the spacecraft Venera 9 and 10, and showed a dry rock-strewn surface.

Maps of the surface improved dramatically in 1978, when the Pioneer-Venus 1 spacecraft went into orbit around Venus, equipped with a radar altimeter. It showed huge rolling plains stretching right around the planet, some lowland areas, and two highland regions called Ishtar and Aphrodite. The peaks of the highest mountains, Maxwell Montes, in the eastern part of Ishtar, were found to be 12,000 meters above the general surface level, so they are appreciably higher than the Himalayas. Aphrodite, which is larger than Ishtar, has a vast rift valley at its eastern end nearly 3,000 meters deep, 2,200 kilometers long, and 280 kilometers wide. Two shield volcanoes, broad volcanoes formed of successive outpourings of lava, which are much larger than any found on Earth, were also found isolated from the two upland areas. Six years later a great many impact craters and small volcanoes were found by Venera 15 and 16 orbiters.

Later yet, the Magellan spacecraft entered orbit around Venus in August 1990, and over the next two years completed a detailed radar mapping of the surface. It found that the surface is mostly volcanic, with large lava-flooded plains and thousands of volcanoes. There are also signs of tectonic activity, which has caused, for example, multiple faulting and deep fractures. There are a number of rift valleys, some of which have been partly flooded by molten lava, and a number of impact craters, the density of which has enabled the ages of various areas to be estimated. The absence of impact craters in an area suggests an age of no more than a few tens of millions of years.

The word "equipped" in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to ______.

TEXT 1 — VENUS

The first maps of Venus were made using radar beams transmitted from Earth. Radar was the only way to map its surface, because the clouds on Venus are so thick that the surface cannot be seen through them. The results of these early attempts at mapping were relatively crude and difficult to interpret, although the regions known as Alpha and Beta Regions were discovered.

The first direct view of the surface came from probes, which were landed on Venus in 1975 by the spacecraft Venera 9 and 10, and showed a dry rock-strewn surface.

Maps of the surface improved dramatically in 1978, when the Pioneer-Venus 1 spacecraft went into orbit around Venus, equipped with a radar altimeter. It showed huge rolling plains stretching right around the planet, some lowland areas, and two highland regions called Ishtar and Aphrodite. The peaks of the highest mountains, Maxwell Montes, in the eastern part of Ishtar, were found to be 12,000 meters above the general surface level, so they are appreciably higher than the Himalayas. Aphrodite, which is larger than Ishtar, has a vast rift valley at its eastern end nearly 3,000 meters deep, 2,200 kilometers long, and 280 kilometers wide. Two shield volcanoes, broad volcanoes formed of successive outpourings of lava, which are much larger than any found on Earth, were also found isolated from the two upland areas. Six years later a great many impact craters and small volcanoes were found by Venera 15 and 16 orbiters.

Later yet, the Magellan spacecraft entered orbit around Venus in August 1990, and over the next two years completed a detailed radar mapping of the surface. It found that the surface is mostly volcanic, with large lava-flooded plains and thousands of volcanoes. There are also signs of tectonic activity, which has caused, for example, multiple faulting and deep fractures. There are a number of rift valleys, some of which have been partly flooded by molten lava, and a number of impact craters, the density of which has enabled the ages of various areas to be estimated. The absence of impact craters in an area suggests an age of no more than a few tens of millions of years.

The author discusses Maxwell Montes together with the Himalayas in the passage in order to ______.

TEXT 1 — VENUS

The first maps of Venus were made using radar beams transmitted from Earth. Radar was the only way to map its surface, because the clouds on Venus are so thick that the surface cannot be seen through them. The results of these early attempts at mapping were relatively crude and difficult to interpret, although the regions known as Alpha and Beta Regions were discovered.

The first direct view of the surface came from probes, which were landed on Venus in 1975 by the spacecraft Venera 9 and 10, and showed a dry rock-strewn surface.

Maps of the surface improved dramatically in 1978, when the Pioneer-Venus 1 spacecraft went into orbit around Venus, equipped with a radar altimeter. It showed huge rolling plains stretching right around the planet, some lowland areas, and two highland regions called Ishtar and Aphrodite. The peaks of the highest mountains, Maxwell Montes, in the eastern part of Ishtar, were found to be 12,000 meters above the general surface level, so they are appreciably higher than the Himalayas. Aphrodite, which is larger than Ishtar, has a vast rift valley at its eastern end nearly 3,000 meters deep, 2,200 kilometers long, and 280 kilometers wide. Two shield volcanoes, broad volcanoes formed of successive outpourings of lava, which are much larger than any found on Earth, were also found isolated from the two upland areas. Six years later a great many impact craters and small volcanoes were found by Venera 15 and 16 orbiters.

Later yet, the Magellan spacecraft entered orbit around Venus in August 1990, and over the next two years completed a detailed radar mapping of the surface. It found that the surface is mostly volcanic, with large lava-flooded plains and thousands of volcanoes. There are also signs of tectonic activity, which has caused, for example, multiple faulting and deep fractures. There are a number of rift valleys, some of which have been partly flooded by molten lava, and a number of impact craters, the density of which has enabled the ages of various areas to be estimated. The absence of impact craters in an area suggests an age of no more than a few tens of millions of years.

The word "appreciably" in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to ______.

TEXT 1 — VENUS

The first maps of Venus were made using radar beams transmitted from Earth. Radar was the only way to map its surface, because the clouds on Venus are so thick that the surface cannot be seen through them. The results of these early attempts at mapping were relatively crude and difficult to interpret, although the regions known as Alpha and Beta Regions were discovered.

The first direct view of the surface came from probes, which were landed on Venus in 1975 by the spacecraft Venera 9 and 10, and showed a dry rock-strewn surface.

Maps of the surface improved dramatically in 1978, when the Pioneer-Venus 1 spacecraft went into orbit around Venus, equipped with a radar altimeter. It showed huge rolling plains stretching right around the planet, some lowland areas, and two highland regions called Ishtar and Aphrodite. The peaks of the highest mountains, Maxwell Montes, in the eastern part of Ishtar, were found to be 12,000 meters above the general surface level, so they are appreciably higher than the Himalayas. Aphrodite, which is larger than Ishtar, has a vast rift valley at its eastern end nearly 3,000 meters deep, 2,200 kilometers long, and 280 kilometers wide. Two shield volcanoes, broad volcanoes formed of successive outpourings of lava, which are much larger than any found on Earth, were also found isolated from the two upland areas. Six years later a great many impact craters and small volcanoes were found by Venera 15 and 16 orbiters.

Later yet, the Magellan spacecraft entered orbit around Venus in August 1990, and over the next two years completed a detailed radar mapping of the surface. It found that the surface is mostly volcanic, with large lava-flooded plains and thousands of volcanoes. There are also signs of tectonic activity, which has caused, for example, multiple faulting and deep fractures. There are a number of rift valleys, some of which have been partly flooded by molten lava, and a number of impact craters, the density of which has enabled the ages of various areas to be estimated. The absence of impact craters in an area suggests an age of no more than a few tens of millions of years.

The word "isolated" in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to ______.

TEXT 1 — VENUS

The first maps of Venus were made using radar beams transmitted from Earth. Radar was the only way to map its surface, because the clouds on Venus are so thick that the surface cannot be seen through them. The results of these early attempts at mapping were relatively crude and difficult to interpret, although the regions known as Alpha and Beta Regions were discovered.

The first direct view of the surface came from probes, which were landed on Venus in 1975 by the spacecraft Venera 9 and 10, and showed a dry rock-strewn surface.

Maps of the surface improved dramatically in 1978, when the Pioneer-Venus 1 spacecraft went into orbit around Venus, equipped with a radar altimeter. It showed huge rolling plains stretching right around the planet, some lowland areas, and two highland regions called Ishtar and Aphrodite. The peaks of the highest mountains, Maxwell Montes, in the eastern part of Ishtar, were found to be 12,000 meters above the general surface level, so they are appreciably higher than the Himalayas. Aphrodite, which is larger than Ishtar, has a vast rift valley at its eastern end nearly 3,000 meters deep, 2,200 kilometers long, and 280 kilometers wide. Two shield volcanoes, broad volcanoes formed of successive outpourings of lava, which are much larger than any found on Earth, were also found isolated from the two upland areas. Six years later a great many impact craters and small volcanoes were found by Venera 15 and 16 orbiters.

Later yet, the Magellan spacecraft entered orbit around Venus in August 1990, and over the next two years completed a detailed radar mapping of the surface. It found that the surface is mostly volcanic, with large lava-flooded plains and thousands of volcanoes. There are also signs of tectonic activity, which has caused, for example, multiple faulting and deep fractures. There are a number of rift valleys, some of which have been partly flooded by molten lava, and a number of impact craters, the density of which has enabled the ages of various areas to be estimated. The absence of impact craters in an area suggests an age of no more than a few tens of millions of years.

Pioneer-Venus 1 discovered that Venus had all of the following features EXCEPT ______.

TEXT 1 — VENUS

The first maps of Venus were made using radar beams transmitted from Earth. Radar was the only way to map its surface, because the clouds on Venus are so thick that the surface cannot be seen through them. The results of these early attempts at mapping were relatively crude and difficult to interpret, although the regions known as Alpha and Beta Regions were discovered.

The first direct view of the surface came from probes, which were landed on Venus in 1975 by the spacecraft Venera 9 and 10, and showed a dry rock-strewn surface.

Maps of the surface improved dramatically in 1978, when the Pioneer-Venus 1 spacecraft went into orbit around Venus, equipped with a radar altimeter. It showed huge rolling plains stretching right around the planet, some lowland areas, and two highland regions called Ishtar and Aphrodite. The peaks of the highest mountains, Maxwell Montes, in the eastern part of Ishtar, were found to be 12,000 meters above the general surface level, so they are appreciably higher than the Himalayas. Aphrodite, which is larger than Ishtar, has a vast rift valley at its eastern end nearly 3,000 meters deep, 2,200 kilometers long, and 280 kilometers wide. Two shield volcanoes, broad volcanoes formed of successive outpourings of lava, which are much larger than any found on Earth, were also found isolated from the two upland areas. Six years later a great many impact craters and small volcanoes were found by Venera 15 and 16 orbiters.

Later yet, the Magellan spacecraft entered orbit around Venus in August 1990, and over the next two years completed a detailed radar mapping of the surface. It found that the surface is mostly volcanic, with large lava-flooded plains and thousands of volcanoes. There are also signs of tectonic activity, which has caused, for example, multiple faulting and deep fractures. There are a number of rift valleys, some of which have been partly flooded by molten lava, and a number of impact craters, the density of which has enabled the ages of various areas to be estimated. The absence of impact craters in an area suggests an age of no more than a few tens of millions of years.

The Magellan spacecraft discovered that most of the surface of Venus is covered with ______.

TEXT 1 — VENUS

The first maps of Venus were made using radar beams transmitted from Earth. Radar was the only way to map its surface, because the clouds on Venus are so thick that the surface cannot be seen through them. The results of these early attempts at mapping were relatively crude and difficult to interpret, although the regions known as Alpha and Beta Regions were discovered.

The first direct view of the surface came from probes, which were landed on Venus in 1975 by the spacecraft Venera 9 and 10, and showed a dry rock-strewn surface.

Maps of the surface improved dramatically in 1978, when the Pioneer-Venus 1 spacecraft went into orbit around Venus, equipped with a radar altimeter. It showed huge rolling plains stretching right around the planet, some lowland areas, and two highland regions called Ishtar and Aphrodite. The peaks of the highest mountains, Maxwell Montes, in the eastern part of Ishtar, were found to be 12,000 meters above the general surface level, so they are appreciably higher than the Himalayas. Aphrodite, which is larger than Ishtar, has a vast rift valley at its eastern end nearly 3,000 meters deep, 2,200 kilometers long, and 280 kilometers wide. Two shield volcanoes, broad volcanoes formed of successive outpourings of lava, which are much larger than any found on Earth, were also found isolated from the two upland areas. Six years later a great many impact craters and small volcanoes were found by Venera 15 and 16 orbiters.

Later yet, the Magellan spacecraft entered orbit around Venus in August 1990, and over the next two years completed a detailed radar mapping of the surface. It found that the surface is mostly volcanic, with large lava-flooded plains and thousands of volcanoes. There are also signs of tectonic activity, which has caused, for example, multiple faulting and deep fractures. There are a number of rift valleys, some of which have been partly flooded by molten lava, and a number of impact craters, the density of which has enabled the ages of various areas to be estimated. The absence of impact craters in an area suggests an age of no more than a few tens of millions of years.

It can be inferred from the passage that scientists use the density of impact craters on Venus to determine which of the following?

TEXT 2 — INSECT WINGS

Except for flies, all flying insects have two pairs of wings, one of which is attached to the upper mesothorax and the other to the upper metathorax. It is likely that their wings originated as flaps that could be extended from the thorax, allowing wingless insects to escape danger by leaping from an elevated perch and gliding some distance away. Insect wings are unique, having evolved specifically for flight, while the wings of birds and bats are merely modifications of preexisting limbs.

The earliest insects known to be capable of true flight had two pairs of wings that remained extended and did not fold, even when the creature was at rest. Each pair flapped independently of the other pair, a contemporary parallel to this feature being found in the wings of dragonflies, which are members of a primitive but common order of insects. Many advanced insects, such as beetles, butterflies, and wasps, have evolved means to link their forewings and hind wings to form two coordinated flight surfaces rather than four.

Most insect wings are laced with veins. These are distinct ridges, the pattern of which is often critical to the identification of individual species. The spaces between the veins are called cells, those extending to the wing margin are open cells, and those enclosed by veins on all sides are closed cells. Adult insects that emerge from a pupa have wings that at first look crumpled and useless. Extensions of the tracheal respiratory system run through the veins, and blood circulates in the spaces around the tracheae. As air is pumped through the veins, the wings of these newly emerged insects unfold and straighten. As the veins harden, they provide both strength and a degree of flexibility, and the wings become capable of sustaining flight.

The veins of the wings tend to be thicker and stronger near the body and along the forward or leading edge, and thinner and more flexible near the tip and along the trailing edge. The trailing edge curls on the upstroke and the other curls on the downstroke, pushing against the air behind it and producing not only lift but forward propulsion and reduced drag.

The wings of insects are compared to the wings of birds and bats in terms of ______.

TEXT 2 — INSECT WINGS

Except for flies, all flying insects have two pairs of wings, one of which is attached to the upper mesothorax and the other to the upper metathorax. It is likely that their wings originated as flaps that could be extended from the thorax, allowing wingless insects to escape danger by leaping from an elevated perch and gliding some distance away. Insect wings are unique, having evolved specifically for flight, while the wings of birds and bats are merely modifications of preexisting limbs.

The earliest insects known to be capable of true flight had two pairs of wings that remained extended and did not fold, even when the creature was at rest. Each pair flapped independently of the other pair, a contemporary parallel to this feature being found in the wings of dragonflies, which are members of a primitive but common order of insects. Many advanced insects, such as beetles, butterflies, and wasps, have evolved means to link their forewings and hind wings to form two coordinated flight surfaces rather than four.

Most insect wings are laced with veins. These are distinct ridges, the pattern of which is often critical to the identification of individual species. The spaces between the veins are called cells, those extending to the wing margin are open cells, and those enclosed by veins on all sides are closed cells. Adult insects that emerge from a pupa have wings that at first look crumpled and useless. Extensions of the tracheal respiratory system run through the veins, and blood circulates in the spaces around the tracheae. As air is pumped through the veins, the wings of these newly emerged insects unfold and straighten. As the veins harden, they provide both strength and a degree of flexibility, and the wings become capable of sustaining flight.

The veins of the wings tend to be thicker and stronger near the body and along the forward or leading edge, and thinner and more flexible near the tip and along the trailing edge. The trailing edge curls on the upstroke and the other curls on the downstroke, pushing against the air behind it and producing not only lift but forward propulsion and reduced drag.

Which of the following is a characteristic of the earliest insects known to be capable of true flight?

TEXT 2 — INSECT WINGS

Except for flies, all flying insects have two pairs of wings, one of which is attached to the upper mesothorax and the other to the upper metathorax. It is likely that their wings originated as flaps that could be extended from the thorax, allowing wingless insects to escape danger by leaping from an elevated perch and gliding some distance away. Insect wings are unique, having evolved specifically for flight, while the wings of birds and bats are merely modifications of preexisting limbs.

The earliest insects known to be capable of true flight had two pairs of wings that remained extended and did not fold, even when the creature was at rest. Each pair flapped independently of the other pair, a contemporary parallel to this feature being found in the wings of dragonflies, which are members of a primitive but common order of insects. Many advanced insects, such as beetles, butterflies, and wasps, have evolved means to link their forewings and hind wings to form two coordinated flight surfaces rather than four.

Most insect wings are laced with veins. These are distinct ridges, the pattern of which is often critical to the identification of individual species. The spaces between the veins are called cells, those extending to the wing margin are open cells, and those enclosed by veins on all sides are closed cells. Adult insects that emerge from a pupa have wings that at first look crumpled and useless. Extensions of the tracheal respiratory system run through the veins, and blood circulates in the spaces around the tracheae. As air is pumped through the veins, the wings of these newly emerged insects unfold and straighten. As the veins harden, they provide both strength and a degree of flexibility, and the wings become capable of sustaining flight.

The veins of the wings tend to be thicker and stronger near the body and along the forward or leading edge, and thinner and more flexible near the tip and along the trailing edge. The trailing edge curls on the upstroke and the other curls on the downstroke, pushing against the air behind it and producing not only lift but forward propulsion and reduced drag.

The author mentions dragonflies in the second paragraph as an example of insects whose wings are ______.

TEXT 2 — INSECT WINGS

Except for flies, all flying insects have two pairs of wings, one of which is attached to the upper mesothorax and the other to the upper metathorax. It is likely that their wings originated as flaps that could be extended from the thorax, allowing wingless insects to escape danger by leaping from an elevated perch and gliding some distance away. Insect wings are unique, having evolved specifically for flight, while the wings of birds and bats are merely modifications of preexisting limbs.

The earliest insects known to be capable of true flight had two pairs of wings that remained extended and did not fold, even when the creature was at rest. Each pair flapped independently of the other pair, a contemporary parallel to this feature being found in the wings of dragonflies, which are members of a primitive but common order of insects. Many advanced insects, such as beetles, butterflies, and wasps, have evolved means to link their forewings and hind wings to form two coordinated flight surfaces rather than four.

Most insect wings are laced with veins. These are distinct ridges, the pattern of which is often critical to the identification of individual species. The spaces between the veins are called cells, those extending to the wing margin are open cells, and those enclosed by veins on all sides are closed cells. Adult insects that emerge from a pupa have wings that at first look crumpled and useless. Extensions of the tracheal respiratory system run through the veins, and blood circulates in the spaces around the tracheae. As air is pumped through the veins, the wings of these newly emerged insects unfold and straighten. As the veins harden, they provide both strength and a degree of flexibility, and the wings become capable of sustaining flight.

The veins of the wings tend to be thicker and stronger near the body and along the forward or leading edge, and thinner and more flexible near the tip and along the trailing edge. The trailing edge curls on the upstroke and the other curls on the downstroke, pushing against the air behind it and producing not only lift but forward propulsion and reduced drag.

According to the passage, how do the veins of insect wings differ among species?

TEXT 2 — INSECT WINGS

Except for flies, all flying insects have two pairs of wings, one of which is attached to the upper mesothorax and the other to the upper metathorax. It is likely that their wings originated as flaps that could be extended from the thorax, allowing wingless insects to escape danger by leaping from an elevated perch and gliding some distance away. Insect wings are unique, having evolved specifically for flight, while the wings of birds and bats are merely modifications of preexisting limbs.

The earliest insects known to be capable of true flight had two pairs of wings that remained extended and did not fold, even when the creature was at rest. Each pair flapped independently of the other pair, a contemporary parallel to this feature being found in the wings of dragonflies, which are members of a primitive but common order of insects. Many advanced insects, such as beetles, butterflies, and wasps, have evolved means to link their forewings and hind wings to form two coordinated flight surfaces rather than four.

Most insect wings are laced with veins. These are distinct ridges, the pattern of which is often critical to the identification of individual species. The spaces between the veins are called cells, those extending to the wing margin are open cells, and those enclosed by veins on all sides are closed cells. Adult insects that emerge from a pupa have wings that at first look crumpled and useless. Extensions of the tracheal respiratory system run through the veins, and blood circulates in the spaces around the tracheae. As air is pumped through the veins, the wings of these newly emerged insects unfold and straighten. As the veins harden, they provide both strength and a degree of flexibility, and the wings become capable of sustaining flight.

The veins of the wings tend to be thicker and stronger near the body and along the forward or leading edge, and thinner and more flexible near the tip and along the trailing edge. The trailing edge curls on the upstroke and the other curls on the downstroke, pushing against the air behind it and producing not only lift but forward propulsion and reduced drag.

Where can open cells be found?

TEXT 2 — INSECT WINGS

Except for flies, all flying insects have two pairs of wings, one of which is attached to the upper mesothorax and the other to the upper metathorax. It is likely that their wings originated as flaps that could be extended from the thorax, allowing wingless insects to escape danger by leaping from an elevated perch and gliding some distance away. Insect wings are unique, having evolved specifically for flight, while the wings of birds and bats are merely modifications of preexisting limbs.

The earliest insects known to be capable of true flight had two pairs of wings that remained extended and did not fold, even when the creature was at rest. Each pair flapped independently of the other pair, a contemporary parallel to this feature being found in the wings of dragonflies, which are members of a primitive but common order of insects. Many advanced insects, such as beetles, butterflies, and wasps, have evolved means to link their forewings and hind wings to form two coordinated flight surfaces rather than four.

Most insect wings are laced with veins. These are distinct ridges, the pattern of which is often critical to the identification of individual species. The spaces between the veins are called cells, those extending to the wing margin are open cells, and those enclosed by veins on all sides are closed cells. Adult insects that emerge from a pupa have wings that at first look crumpled and useless. Extensions of the tracheal respiratory system run through the veins, and blood circulates in the spaces around the tracheae. As air is pumped through the veins, the wings of these newly emerged insects unfold and straighten. As the veins harden, they provide both strength and a degree of flexibility, and the wings become capable of sustaining flight.

The veins of the wings tend to be thicker and stronger near the body and along the forward or leading edge, and thinner and more flexible near the tip and along the trailing edge. The trailing edge curls on the upstroke and the other curls on the downstroke, pushing against the air behind it and producing not only lift but forward propulsion and reduced drag.

The word "they" in paragraph 3 refers to ______.

TEXT 2 — INSECT WINGS

Except for flies, all flying insects have two pairs of wings, one of which is attached to the upper mesothorax and the other to the upper metathorax. It is likely that their wings originated as flaps that could be extended from the thorax, allowing wingless insects to escape danger by leaping from an elevated perch and gliding some distance away. Insect wings are unique, having evolved specifically for flight, while the wings of birds and bats are merely modifications of preexisting limbs.

The earliest insects known to be capable of true flight had two pairs of wings that remained extended and did not fold, even when the creature was at rest. Each pair flapped independently of the other pair, a contemporary parallel to this feature being found in the wings of dragonflies, which are members of a primitive but common order of insects. Many advanced insects, such as beetles, butterflies, and wasps, have evolved means to link their forewings and hind wings to form two coordinated flight surfaces rather than four.

Most insect wings are laced with veins. These are distinct ridges, the pattern of which is often critical to the identification of individual species. The spaces between the veins are called cells, those extending to the wing margin are open cells, and those enclosed by veins on all sides are closed cells. Adult insects that emerge from a pupa have wings that at first look crumpled and useless. Extensions of the tracheal respiratory system run through the veins, and blood circulates in the spaces around the tracheae. As air is pumped through the veins, the wings of these newly emerged insects unfold and straighten. As the veins harden, they provide both strength and a degree of flexibility, and the wings become capable of sustaining flight.

The veins of the wings tend to be thicker and stronger near the body and along the forward or leading edge, and thinner and more flexible near the tip and along the trailing edge. The trailing edge curls on the upstroke and the other curls on the downstroke, pushing against the air behind it and producing not only lift but forward propulsion and reduced drag.

How do the forward and trailing edges of insect wings differ?

TEXT 2 — INSECT WINGS

Except for flies, all flying insects have two pairs of wings, one of which is attached to the upper mesothorax and the other to the upper metathorax. It is likely that their wings originated as flaps that could be extended from the thorax, allowing wingless insects to escape danger by leaping from an elevated perch and gliding some distance away. Insect wings are unique, having evolved specifically for flight, while the wings of birds and bats are merely modifications of preexisting limbs.

The earliest insects known to be capable of true flight had two pairs of wings that remained extended and did not fold, even when the creature was at rest. Each pair flapped independently of the other pair, a contemporary parallel to this feature being found in the wings of dragonflies, which are members of a primitive but common order of insects. Many advanced insects, such as beetles, butterflies, and wasps, have evolved means to link their forewings and hind wings to form two coordinated flight surfaces rather than four.

Most insect wings are laced with veins. These are distinct ridges, the pattern of which is often critical to the identification of individual species. The spaces between the veins are called cells, those extending to the wing margin are open cells, and those enclosed by veins on all sides are closed cells. Adult insects that emerge from a pupa have wings that at first look crumpled and useless. Extensions of the tracheal respiratory system run through the veins, and blood circulates in the spaces around the tracheae. As air is pumped through the veins, the wings of these newly emerged insects unfold and straighten. As the veins harden, they provide both strength and a degree of flexibility, and the wings become capable of sustaining flight.

The veins of the wings tend to be thicker and stronger near the body and along the forward or leading edge, and thinner and more flexible near the tip and along the trailing edge. The trailing edge curls on the upstroke and the other curls on the downstroke, pushing against the air behind it and producing not only lift but forward propulsion and reduced drag.

The word "flexible" in paragraph 4 is closest in meaning to ______.

TEXT 2 — INSECT WINGS

Except for flies, all flying insects have two pairs of wings, one of which is attached to the upper mesothorax and the other to the upper metathorax. It is likely that their wings originated as flaps that could be extended from the thorax, allowing wingless insects to escape danger by leaping from an elevated perch and gliding some distance away. Insect wings are unique, having evolved specifically for flight, while the wings of birds and bats are merely modifications of preexisting limbs.

The earliest insects known to be capable of true flight had two pairs of wings that remained extended and did not fold, even when the creature was at rest. Each pair flapped independently of the other pair, a contemporary parallel to this feature being found in the wings of dragonflies, which are members of a primitive but common order of insects. Many advanced insects, such as beetles, butterflies, and wasps, have evolved means to link their forewings and hind wings to form two coordinated flight surfaces rather than four.

Most insect wings are laced with veins. These are distinct ridges, the pattern of which is often critical to the identification of individual species. The spaces between the veins are called cells, those extending to the wing margin are open cells, and those enclosed by veins on all sides are closed cells. Adult insects that emerge from a pupa have wings that at first look crumpled and useless. Extensions of the tracheal respiratory system run through the veins, and blood circulates in the spaces around the tracheae. As air is pumped through the veins, the wings of these newly emerged insects unfold and straighten. As the veins harden, they provide both strength and a degree of flexibility, and the wings become capable of sustaining flight.

The veins of the wings tend to be thicker and stronger near the body and along the forward or leading edge, and thinner and more flexible near the tip and along the trailing edge. The trailing edge curls on the upstroke and the other curls on the downstroke, pushing against the air behind it and producing not only lift but forward propulsion and reduced drag.

Which of the following can be inferred from the passage about the capabilities of an adult insect that has recently emerged from the pupa?

TEXT 2 — INSECT WINGS

Except for flies, all flying insects have two pairs of wings, one of which is attached to the upper mesothorax and the other to the upper metathorax. It is likely that their wings originated as flaps that could be extended from the thorax, allowing wingless insects to escape danger by leaping from an elevated perch and gliding some distance away. Insect wings are unique, having evolved specifically for flight, while the wings of birds and bats are merely modifications of preexisting limbs.

The earliest insects known to be capable of true flight had two pairs of wings that remained extended and did not fold, even when the creature was at rest. Each pair flapped independently of the other pair, a contemporary parallel to this feature being found in the wings of dragonflies, which are members of a primitive but common order of insects. Many advanced insects, such as beetles, butterflies, and wasps, have evolved means to link their forewings and hind wings to form two coordinated flight surfaces rather than four.

Most insect wings are laced with veins. These are distinct ridges, the pattern of which is often critical to the identification of individual species. The spaces between the veins are called cells, those extending to the wing margin are open cells, and those enclosed by veins on all sides are closed cells. Adult insects that emerge from a pupa have wings that at first look crumpled and useless. Extensions of the tracheal respiratory system run through the veins, and blood circulates in the spaces around the tracheae. As air is pumped through the veins, the wings of these newly emerged insects unfold and straighten. As the veins harden, they provide both strength and a degree of flexibility, and the wings become capable of sustaining flight.

The veins of the wings tend to be thicker and stronger near the body and along the forward or leading edge, and thinner and more flexible near the tip and along the trailing edge. The trailing edge curls on the upstroke and the other curls on the downstroke, pushing against the air behind it and producing not only lift but forward propulsion and reduced drag.

Which of the following aspects of insects that can fly is NOT discussed in the passage?

TEXT 3 — FORMALISM AND CONTEXTUALISM

Viewed from a formalist perspective, art is appreciated for the enriching aesthetic experience its visual form can provide. The name formalism stems from the primary focus of this perspective on the artistic form of the work: its line, shape, color, texture, line and composition. For the formalist, art is to be valued for its artistic qualities, separate from its connection to the larger world. In the case of a film, the viewer would concentrate on its formal qualities (for instance, camera compositions, editing rhythms, settings, lighting effects, dialogue, and soundtrack) while ignoring the film's contextual relationships to social and political issues. It is believed that such “nonartistic” considerations only detract from the aesthetic experience the work's artistic form can provide. Although the formalist approach pares away history, morality, and virtually everything other than color, shape, technique, and composition, this approach does get the viewer to look closely and respond with feeling to the artwork's sensuous qualities.

In contrast to formalism, contextualism is concerned with the appreciation of art “in context,” that is, in relation to the rest of life. Like a wide-angle camera shot, contextualism takes in the big picture. Everything that surrounds and relates to the artwork is relevant: the viewer, the artist, the physical setting of the work; and the art, culture, and society that gave birth to it. For the contextualist, a full appreciation of a film is impossible without information about its director and the director's creative process, as well as knowledge about the era and the culture of the country in which the film was made. The strong point of the contextualist approach is its ability to expand the viewer's understanding of the work in relation to the larger world. In contrast to the reductive focus of formalism, contextualism offers the viewer many ways of looking at and giving meaning to the artwork. Its major limitation, the formalists say, stems from its primary concern with facts and theories. They argue that contextualists can often emphasize fact-finding and theorizing to the exclusion of any sensuous response to the work of art.

What is the passage mainly about?

TEXT 3 — FORMALISM AND CONTEXTUALISM

Viewed from a formalist perspective, art is appreciated for the enriching aesthetic experience its visual form can provide. The name formalism stems from the primary focus of this perspective on the artistic form of the work: its line, shape, color, texture, line and composition. For the formalist, art is to be valued for its artistic qualities, separate from its connection to the larger world. In the case of a film, the viewer would concentrate on its formal qualities (for instance, camera compositions, editing rhythms, settings, lighting effects, dialogue, and soundtrack) while ignoring the film's contextual relationships to social and political issues. It is believed that such “nonartistic” considerations only detract from the aesthetic experience the work's artistic form can provide. Although the formalist approach pares away history, morality, and virtually everything other than color, shape, technique, and composition, this approach does get the viewer to look closely and respond with feeling to the artwork's sensuous qualities.

In contrast to formalism, contextualism is concerned with the appreciation of art “in context,” that is, in relation to the rest of life. Like a wide-angle camera shot, contextualism takes in the big picture. Everything that surrounds and relates to the artwork is relevant: the viewer, the artist, the physical setting of the work; and the art, culture, and society that gave birth to it. For the contextualist, a full appreciation of a film is impossible without information about its director and the director's creative process, as well as knowledge about the era and the culture of the country in which the film was made. The strong point of the contextualist approach is its ability to expand the viewer's understanding of the work in relation to the larger world. In contrast to the reductive focus of formalism, contextualism offers the viewer many ways of looking at and giving meaning to the artwork. Its major limitation, the formalists say, stems from its primary concern with facts and theories. They argue that contextualists can often emphasize fact-finding and theorizing to the exclusion of any sensuous response to the work of art.

According to the first paragraph, a formalist evaluates a work of art in terms of ______.

TEXT 3 — FORMALISM AND CONTEXTUALISM

Viewed from a formalist perspective, art is appreciated for the enriching aesthetic experience its visual form can provide. The name formalism stems from the primary focus of this perspective on the artistic form of the work: its line, shape, color, texture, line and composition. For the formalist, art is to be valued for its artistic qualities, separate from its connection to the larger world. In the case of a film, the viewer would concentrate on its formal qualities (for instance, camera compositions, editing rhythms, settings, lighting effects, dialogue, and soundtrack) while ignoring the film's contextual relationships to social and political issues. It is believed that such “nonartistic” considerations only detract from the aesthetic experience the work's artistic form can provide. Although the formalist approach pares away history, morality, and virtually everything other than color, shape, technique, and composition, this approach does get the viewer to look closely and respond with feeling to the artwork's sensuous qualities.

In contrast to formalism, contextualism is concerned with the appreciation of art “in context,” that is, in relation to the rest of life. Like a wide-angle camera shot, contextualism takes in the big picture. Everything that surrounds and relates to the artwork is relevant: the viewer, the artist, the physical setting of the work; and the art, culture, and society that gave birth to it. For the contextualist, a full appreciation of a film is impossible without information about its director and the director's creative process, as well as knowledge about the era and the culture of the country in which the film was made. The strong point of the contextualist approach is its ability to expand the viewer's understanding of the work in relation to the larger world. In contrast to the reductive focus of formalism, contextualism offers the viewer many ways of looking at and giving meaning to the artwork. Its major limitation, the formalists say, stems from its primary concern with facts and theories. They argue that contextualists can often emphasize fact-finding and theorizing to the exclusion of any sensuous response to the work of art.

The first paragraph mentions all of the following as examples of artistic form EXCEPT ______.

TEXT 3 — FORMALISM AND CONTEXTUALISM

Viewed from a formalist perspective, art is appreciated for the enriching aesthetic experience its visual form can provide. The name formalism stems from the primary focus of this perspective on the artistic form of the work: its line, shape, color, texture, line and composition. For the formalist, art is to be valued for its artistic qualities, separate from its connection to the larger world. In the case of a film, the viewer would concentrate on its formal qualities (for instance, camera compositions, editing rhythms, settings, lighting effects, dialogue, and soundtrack) while ignoring the film's contextual relationships to social and political issues. It is believed that such “nonartistic” considerations only detract from the aesthetic experience the work's artistic form can provide. Although the formalist approach pares away history, morality, and virtually everything other than color, shape, technique, and composition, this approach does get the viewer to look closely and respond with feeling to the artwork's sensuous qualities.

In contrast to formalism, contextualism is concerned with the appreciation of art “in context,” that is, in relation to the rest of life. Like a wide-angle camera shot, contextualism takes in the big picture. Everything that surrounds and relates to the artwork is relevant: the viewer, the artist, the physical setting of the work; and the art, culture, and society that gave birth to it. For the contextualist, a full appreciation of a film is impossible without information about its director and the director's creative process, as well as knowledge about the era and the culture of the country in which the film was made. The strong point of the contextualist approach is its ability to expand the viewer's understanding of the work in relation to the larger world. In contrast to the reductive focus of formalism, contextualism offers the viewer many ways of looking at and giving meaning to the artwork. Its major limitation, the formalists say, stems from its primary concern with facts and theories. They argue that contextualists can often emphasize fact-finding and theorizing to the exclusion of any sensuous response to the work of art.

The phrase “concentrate on” in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to ______.

TEXT 3 — FORMALISM AND CONTEXTUALISM

Viewed from a formalist perspective, art is appreciated for the enriching aesthetic experience its visual form can provide. The name formalism stems from the primary focus of this perspective on the artistic form of the work: its line, shape, color, texture, line and composition. For the formalist, art is to be valued for its artistic qualities, separate from its connection to the larger world. In the case of a film, the viewer would concentrate on its formal qualities (for instance, camera compositions, editing rhythms, settings, lighting effects, dialogue, and soundtrack) while ignoring the film's contextual relationships to social and political issues. It is believed that such “nonartistic” considerations only detract from the aesthetic experience the work's artistic form can provide. Although the formalist approach pares away history, morality, and virtually everything other than color, shape, technique, and composition, this approach does get the viewer to look closely and respond with feeling to the artwork's sensuous qualities.

In contrast to formalism, contextualism is concerned with the appreciation of art “in context,” that is, in relation to the rest of life. Like a wide-angle camera shot, contextualism takes in the big picture. Everything that surrounds and relates to the artwork is relevant: the viewer, the artist, the physical setting of the work; and the art, culture, and society that gave birth to it. For the contextualist, a full appreciation of a film is impossible without information about its director and the director's creative process, as well as knowledge about the era and the culture of the country in which the film was made. The strong point of the contextualist approach is its ability to expand the viewer's understanding of the work in relation to the larger world. In contrast to the reductive focus of formalism, contextualism offers the viewer many ways of looking at and giving meaning to the artwork. Its major limitation, the formalists say, stems from its primary concern with facts and theories. They argue that contextualists can often emphasize fact-finding and theorizing to the exclusion of any sensuous response to the work of art.

Which of the following would most likely be a topic of discussion in a formalist analysis of a painting?

TEXT 3 — FORMALISM AND CONTEXTUALISM

Viewed from a formalist perspective, art is appreciated for the enriching aesthetic experience its visual form can provide. The name formalism stems from the primary focus of this perspective on the artistic form of the work: its line, shape, color, texture, line and composition. For the formalist, art is to be valued for its artistic qualities, separate from its connection to the larger world. In the case of a film, the viewer would concentrate on its formal qualities (for instance, camera compositions, editing rhythms, settings, lighting effects, dialogue, and soundtrack) while ignoring the film's contextual relationships to social and political issues. It is believed that such “nonartistic” considerations only detract from the aesthetic experience the work's artistic form can provide. Although the formalist approach pares away history, morality, and virtually everything other than color, shape, technique, and composition, this approach does get the viewer to look closely and respond with feeling to the artwork's sensuous qualities.

In contrast to formalism, contextualism is concerned with the appreciation of art “in context,” that is, in relation to the rest of life. Like a wide-angle camera shot, contextualism takes in the big picture. Everything that surrounds and relates to the artwork is relevant: the viewer, the artist, the physical setting of the work; and the art, culture, and society that gave birth to it. For the contextualist, a full appreciation of a film is impossible without information about its director and the director's creative process, as well as knowledge about the era and the culture of the country in which the film was made. The strong point of the contextualist approach is its ability to expand the viewer's understanding of the work in relation to the larger world. In contrast to the reductive focus of formalism, contextualism offers the viewer many ways of looking at and giving meaning to the artwork. Its major limitation, the formalists say, stems from its primary concern with facts and theories. They argue that contextualists can often emphasize fact-finding and theorizing to the exclusion of any sensuous response to the work of art.

The author makes a comparison between a “wide-angle camera shot” and the way that contextualists ______.